Criminology Theory
Theory
Theorist(s)
Origins
Main Tenets
Development
Policy Implications
Example of Test
Positivist
Cesare Lombroso
Early 19th Century search for scientific explanations for crime.
Scientific search for empirical facts, whereby criminals could be identified the same way we identify biological cells
Crime is determined by mind and body — not social factors
Led to ideas about reform
Fell out of favor for more optimistic theories.
Eugenics or Rehabilitation
Muniz & Muniz (2019). A Test of Positivist Theory. Journal of USF Professors, 19(1), 1–15.
Enrico Ferri
Mid 19th to Early 20th Centuries, and he was Lombroso’s student
Focus was put on “nurture” side of things over “nature”
Ferri rejected aspects of biological determinism and favored social and environmental factors
Helped criminologists improve on analysis of criminal behaviors
It received lots of support from researchers and sociologists alike
Juvenile Delinquency, Rehabilitative Prison Systems, Social Crime Rates
Oluwagbamila, E., Polycarp, U., & Kasimu, S. (2019). Facts and Fiction in Positivism and Neo Positivism. Research On Humanities And Social Sciences, 13(4), 96–115. doi:10.7176/rhss/9–4–03
Classical
Cesare Beccaria
18th Century
It states that human beings are very rational wih their behaviors, hence they are meant to control their actions
It also postulates that a society or a community should enforce punishment based on the crimes committed
The theory’s development is that it has managed to influence aspects of U.S. constitution and the Bill of Rights
The theory also solidifies the concepts of speedy trials, as well as rules on unusual punishments
Classical theory also aims to eliminate any type of torture as a form of punishment
Criminal Justice System, Police Reforms
Bruinsma, Gerben. 2017. “Classical Theory: The Emergence Of Deterrence Theory In The Age Of Enlightenment”. Taylor & Francis 23 (7): 8–31.
Social Disorganization
Shaw & McKay
Study carried out in 1942 by Shaw and McKay in Chicago school of criminology
It states that, when trying to predict a person’s criminal behaviors, place of upbringing is of great importance than his/her character
The theory gives examples of a neighborhood with high crime rates have three main problems namely: poverty, physical dilapidation and increased level of cultural and ethnic mixing
The theory has been applicable in criminology as a predictor of teen and youth crimes
It also helps governments, through law enforcement agencies, to come up with informed decisions
Delinquency cases, Criminality and Crime Rates
Piscitelli, A., & Doherty, S. (2018). Connecting Social Disorganization To Broken Windows And Routine Activities. The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe Canadien, 62(4), 589–596. doi:10.1111/cag.12468
Learning
Sutherland
Its roots are traced back ti Dr. Edwin Sutherland’s work in 1947
crime is learned through interactions with close associates, whereby a person gets to learn of values, techniques, motives, and attitudes meant for criminal behaviors
The theory led to development of Dr. Ronald Akers social learning theory
It also focuses on the process crime offenders tend to undergo to learn their criminal ways; however, it lacks the aspects of why the crime takes place
Fox, B. (2017). It’s nature and nurture: Integrating biology and genetics into the social learning theory of criminal behavior. Journal Of Criminal Justice, 49(3), 22–31. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.01.003
Akers
1966
The theory states that individuals get to learn of new criminal behaviors and values through direct association with criminals whereby they observe such behaviors through both positive and negative stimuli
It explains the influence of media because it gains influence through various social constructions, which highly depend on what they observe, read and hear rather on their experiences
Influences of media on Social criminality
Fox, K., Nobles, M., & Akers, R. (2017). Is stalking a learned phenomenon? An empirical test of social learning theory. Journal Of Criminal Justice, 39(1), 39–47. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2010.10.002
Strain
Merton
1938
This theory focuses on social pressure whereby acceptable social goals enables people to ignore criminal deeds based on such pressure
That is, whenever a person is faced with a situation where there is a gap between goals (e.g. financial goals) and lack of it, then strain tends to influence social pressure
The strain theory has resulted in the development of many other theories on people’s deviance, such as Agnew and Messner’s theories
It also helps understand the “American Dream” and the social pressure it puts on Americans in achieving their goals
The American Dream,
Financial Crimes
Jang, S., & Agnew, R. (2015). Strain Theories and Crime. International Encyclopedia Of The Social & Behavioral Sciences, 13(4), 495–500. doi:10.1016/b978–0–08–097086–8.45088–9
Agnew
1992
This theory was meant to improve on Merton’s theory, which was vague and lacked specificity on criminology whereby it did not make any accounts on criminal activities
Agnew’s theory specifies on criminology by claiming that individuals experiencing strain are likely to become stressed up, which then result in criminal activities just to cope with life
The theory also brings up the aspect of emotional motivation by an individual to commit crime
Helped understand behaviors of misdemeanors such as drug addicts taking drugs to feel better due to stress and societal pressure
Societal Pressure,
Juvenile Delinquency
Snyder, S., Brezina, T., Wright, E., & Bride, B. (2016). Homeless youth, strain, and justice system involvement: An application of general strain theory. Children And Youth Services Review, 62(8), 90–96. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.02.002
Messner & Rosenfeld
1994
The theory is an expansion of Agnew’s theory on a macro level
It focuses on criminal influences as products of various social factors besides the economic facets
Helps understand economic corruption amongst us, which is due to pressure to achieve our goals
Tolerated Corruption,
Financial Crimes
Featherstone, R., & Deflem, M. (2015). Anomie and Strain: Context and Consequences of Merton’s Two Theories. Sociological Inquiry, 73(4), 471–489. doi:10.1111/1475–682x.00067
Control Theory
Sykes & Matza
1957
The theory claims that we tend to be fully aware of our moral and ethical obligations whereby we should avoid any illegal activities
Hence, when an individual commits a crime, he/she is required to employs methods to evade illegitimate acts in the future
The theory has helped social workers to better understand teen behaviors
Juvenile Delinquency, Rehabilitation
Tittle, C. (2018). Control Balance — Toward A General Theory Of Deviance. Routledge Social Sciences, 12(3), 336–378. doi:10.4324/9780429501326
Control
Hirschi
1960s
The theory focuses on role of a family setup in influencing a person’s criminal behaviors
It insists on school’s influences as a propensity for defiant behaviors
Helped in understanding families, whereby the theory proclaims parental bonding with a child as a significant factor in enhancing or diminishing a child’s propensity for delinquency
Juvenile delinquency
Parental upbringing
Meldrum, R., Junger, M., & Deković, M. (2016). Parental Self-Control and the Development of Male Aggression in Early Childhood: A Longitudinal Test of Self-Control Theory. International Journal Of Offender Therapy And Comparative Criminology, 62(4), 935–957. doi:10.1177/0306624x16662921
Gottfredson & Hirschi
The two researchers improved on Hirchi’s theory by integrating aspects of social control theory
It differs from Hirchi’s on the basis of propensity towards crime
Even though the theory focuses on a person’s internalized control, the general theory on crime rates is in commonality with previous theories whereby it puts emphasis on parental roles during childhood upbringing
Juvenile Delinquency,
Parental upbringing
Triplett, R., & Hebenton, B. (2018). The handbook of the history and philosophy of criminology.
Labeling
Lemert
1960s to 1970s
The theory on labeling is based on people behaving the way they do simply because of what others say about them rather than on environmental factors or internal control
It involves personal and subjective motives that result in a person’s behaviors to drink and/or shoplift
The theory has helped in understanding behaviors of drug addicts whereby, other than physical addiction, intellectual processes are involved in making the decision to use drugs
Drug Enforcements,
Correctional Rehabilitation
Cullen, F., & Jonson, C. (2017). Labeling Theory and Correctional Rehabilitation: Beyond Unanticipated Consequences. Labeling Theory, 56(2), 63–85. doi:10.4324/9780203787656–4
Braitwaithe
1989
The theory speculates re-integrative shaming as a process of reducing crime
The theory goes against stigmatization because of increased deviance associated with it
The theory supports the process of rehabilitating wrongdoers back into the society without making them feel ashamed
The theory is helpful to criminologists whereby it becomes easy to rehabilitate wrongdoers without permanent labels
Curbing crime rates
Rehabilitation
Farrington, D., & Murray, J. (2017). Empirical Tests of Labeling Theory in Criminology. Labeling Theory, 56(4), 1–9. doi:10.4324/9780203787656–1
Conflict
Marx
19th Century
The theory claims the inequality within a society due to competition for limited resources
Crimes are likely to be committed by people of the higher classes simply because they are competition for the scarce resources
The theory hasn’t changed over time, and instead it has helped criminology in understanding reasons for crimes caused by people of the higher class
Social Inequality,
Triplett, R., & Hebenton, B. (2018). The handbook of the history and philosophy of criminology.
Critical
19th Century through to 20th Century
Various scholars on Marxism, Social control theory etc.
The theory sees crimes committed by people as a product of, and a result of oppression on workers, women, children and the less privileged
This has led to the development of various theories fighting for equality amongst people within a society
Capitalism, Socialism, Social Equality
Barry, M. (2015). On the cusp of recognition: Using critical theory to promote desistance among young offenders. Theoretical Criminology, 20(1), 91–106. doi:10.1177/1362480615586613
Feminist
19th, 20th and 21st Centuries
Various scholars
Feminists contend that previous perspectives are un-gendered and as such ignore the gendered experiences of women
Has resulted in creation and development of laws favoring women equality
Rape cases, Domestic violence
Shelby, R. (2018). Whose rape kit? Stabilizing the Vitullo® Kit through positivist criminology and protocol feminism. Theoretical Criminology, 67(3), 136248061881980. doi:10.1177/1362480618819805
White Collar
1939
Edwin Sutherland
Caused by various theories, such as Differential Association by Sutherland, Rational choice theory by Cesare Beccaria
Through interaction with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques, and motives for criminal behavior
It is a development from the other theories, whereby a financially stable individual and one of respectable stature commits “white collar” crime
Social inequality,
Lee, R. (2019). White-collar Criminal — The Offender in Business and the Professions(6th ed., pp. 453–476). New York City: Routledge.
Routine Activities
1940s
Marcus Felson
&
Lawrence E. Cohen
Crime is relatively unaffected by social causes such as poverty, inequality, and unemployment
Routine activity theory has its foundation in human ecology and rational choice theory
It studies crime as an event, closely relates crime to its environment and emphasize its ecological process, thereby diverting academic attention away from mere offenders
Cybercrimes, sexual crimes,
Residential burglary, robberies
Pratt, T., & Turanovic, J. (2015). Lifestyle and Routine Activity Theories Revisited: The Importance of “Risk” to the Study of Victimization. Victims & Offenders, 11(3), 335–354. doi:10.1080/15564886.2015.1057351
Rational Choice
1960s
Cornish and Clarke
Related to David Matza’s Delinquency and Drift
Aggregate social behavior results from the behavior of individual actors, each of whom is making their individual decisions
An individual has preferences among the available choice alternatives that allow them to state which option they prefer
It has helped in development of analyses on behavioral techniques
The rational choice approach allows preferences to be represented as real-valued utility functions
Microeconomics, social equality
Paternoster, R., Jaynes, C., & Wilson, T. (2017). Rational Choice Theory and Interest in the “Fortune of Others”. Journal Of Research In Crime And Delinquency, 54(6), 847–868. doi:10.1177/0022427817707240
Deterrence
19th, 20th and 21st Century
Various scholars
The theory is all about prevention and control of our actions and behaviors by use of fear as motivator
It has helped in shaping the criminal justice system of the United States
Criminal System
Capital Punishment
Veen, F., & Sattler, S. (2018). Modeling Updating of Perceived Detection Risk: The Role of Personal Experience, Peers, Deterrence Policies, and Impulsivity. Deviant Behavior, 56(3), 1–21. doi:10.1080/01639625.2018.1559409
Biosocial
19th Century
Cesare Lombroso
It is an interdisciplinary field that aims to explain crime and antisocial behavior by exploring both biological factors and environmental factors
It is a product of other theories such as positivist, social disorganization and deterrent whereby nurture versus nature are vital aspects to consider
Juvenile Delinquency
Guy, R., & Chomczyński, P. (2018). Bioethics and biosocial criminology: Hurdling the status quo. Ethics, Medicine And Public Health, 21(7), 95–102. doi:10.1016/j.jemep.2018.10.001
Life Course
Moffitt
1993
There are two main types of antisocial offenders in society: The adolescence-limited offenders, who exhibit antisocial behavior only during adolescence and the life-course-persistent offenders, who begin to behave antisocially early in childhood and continue this behavior into adulthood
Its study will be helpful in the future in determining children’s offensive behaviors depending on possible discoveries on brain scans. It helps in future analysis of possible interventions that might be useful
Neuroethical issues,
Juvenile delinquency
Mazerolle, P. (2017). Developmental and Life-course Criminological Theories. Researchgate, 45(2), 57–78. doi:10.4324/9781315094908
Sampson & Laub
1993
The theory claims that criminal activities and various forms of deviance are a result of broken family bonds
It puts attention on influence of various social controls
However, the theory’s main aspect is the fact that these deviant behaviors take place in stages in our lives
The theory is effective because it addresses and analyzes the role of gender inequality in child and teenage delinquency over the course of a person’s life
The theory also helps realize the importance of life-course in analyzing causes of crimes
Juvenile delinquency
Crime rates
Fox, B., Jennings, W., & Farrington, D. (2015). Bringing psychopathy into developmental and life-course criminology theories and research. Journal Of Criminal Justice, 43(4), 274–289. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2015.06.003
